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Brewery

Brewery

A brewery is a facility that produces beer. Typically a brewery is divided into distinct sections, with each section reserved for one part of the brewing process. Breweries can take up multiple city blocks, or be a collection of equipment in a homebrewer's kitchen. The diversity of size in breweries is matched by the diversity of processes, degrees of automation, and kinds of beer produced in breweries.

Beer industry definitions

homebrewer's, India.]] Breweries range widely in the volume and variety of beer produced, ranging from tiny microbreweries that produce a few dozen barrels a year, to massive multinational conglomerates, such as InBev, that produce billions of barrels annually. The most commonly used definitions of breweries are the following, which are used by the U.S. craft beer industry:
- Microbrewery – A small brewery with an annual production of less than 15,000 barrels (17,600 hectoliters) of beer per year. Microbreweries typically distribute through a wholesaler in a traditional three-tier system, act as their own distributor and sell to retailers and/or directly to the consumer through a tap room, attached restaurant, or off-premise sales.
- Brewpub – A restaurant-brewery whose beer is brewed primarily for sale in the restaurant and bar, and most of its beer is sold on site. If the amount of beer that a brewpub distributes off-site beer exceeds 75%, it is usually recategorized as a microbrewery.
- Contract brewing company – A business that hires another brewery to produce its beer. The contract brewing company generally handles all of the beers marketing, sales, and distribution, while leaving the brewing and packaging to the producer-brewery (which, confusingly, is also sometimes referred to as a contract brewer).
- Regional brewery – A large brewery with the a brewing capacity between 15,000 and 2,000,000 barrels (18,000 to 2,300,000 hectoliters).
- Regional specialty brewery – A regional brewery whose flagship brand is an all-malt or specialty beer or whose production is 50% or greater of craft beer. For example, Sierra Nevada Brewing Company and Magic Hat Brewing Company are regional specialty breweries.
- Craft brewer – A brewpub, microbrewery, regional specialty brewery or contract brewing company whose majority of sales is considered craft beer. Various appellations are applied to breweries making over two million barrels (2.3 million hectoliters) a year, not all of which are meant kindly. These include Macrobrewery, Megabrewery and Industrial Brewery, which can be seen as a direct contrast to "Microbrewery" and "Craft Brewery".

History

The oldest brewery in the world still in operation is believed to be the Bavarian State-owned brewery Weihenstephan, found in the German city of the same name, which can trace its history back to 1040.

The industrialization of the brewery

Beer, in some form, can be traced back almost 5000 years to Mesopotamian writings describing daily rations of beer and bread to workers. Before the rise of production breweries the production of beer took place at home and was the domain of women, as baking and brewing were seen as "women's work". Breweries, as production facilities reserved for making beer, did not emerge until monasteries and other Christian institutions started producing beer not only for their own consumption, but also to use as payment. This industrialization of brewing shifted the responsibility of making beer to men. Early breweries were almost always built on multiple storeys, with equipment on higher floors utilized earlier in the production process, so that gravity could assist with the transfer of product from one stage to the next. This layout is often preserved in breweries today, but mechanical pumps allow more flexibility in brewery design. Early breweries typically used large copper vats in the brewhouse, and fermentation and packaging took place in lined wooden containers. Such breweries were common until the Industrial Revolution, when better materials became available, and scientific advances led to a better understanding of the brewing process. Today, almost all breweries are made of stainless steel.

Major technological advances

A handful of major breakthroughs have led to the modern brewery and its ability to produce the same beer consistently. The steam engine, vastly improved in 1765 by James Watt, brought automatic stirring mechanisms, and pumps into the brewery. It gave brewers the ability to more reliably mix liquids while heating, particularly the mash, to prevent scorching, and a quick way to transfer liquid from one container to another. Almost all breweries now use electric-powered stirring mechanisms and pumps. The steam engine also allowed the brewer to make greater quantities of beer, as human power was no longer a limiting factor in moving and stirring. Carl von Linde, along with several other people, is credited with developing the refrigeration machine in 1871. Refrigeration allowed beer to be produced year-round, and always at the same temperature. Yeast is very sensitive to temperature, and if a beer was produced during summer, the yeast would impart unpleasant flavors onto the beer. Most brewers would produce enough beer during winter to last through the summer, and store it in underground cellars, or even caves, to protect it from summer's heat. Most importantly, the discovery of microbes by Louis Pasteur was instrumental in the control of fermentation. The idea that yeast was a microorganism that worked on wort to produce beer lead to the isolation of a single yeast cell by Emil Christian Hansen. Pure yeast cultures allow brewers to pick out yeasts for their fermentation characteristics, including flavor profiles and fermentation ability. Some breweries in Belgium still rely on "spontaneous" fermentation for their beers.

The modern brewery

Breweries today are made predominantly of stainless steel, although vessels often have a decorative copper cladding for a nostalgic look. Stainless steel has many favorable characteristics which make it a well-suited material for brewing equipment. It imparts no flavor in beer, it reacts with very few chemicals, which means almost any cleaning solution can be used on it (concentrated chlorine bleach being a notable exception) and it is very sturdy. Sturdiness is important, as most tanks in the brewery have positive pressure applied to them as a matter of course, and it is not unusual that a vacuum will be formed incidentally during cleaning. Heating in the brewhouse is usually achieved through pressurized steam, although direct-fire systems are not unusual in small breweries. Similarly, cooling in other areas of the brewery is typically done by cooling jackets on tanks, which allow the brewer to precisely control the temperature on each tank individually, although whole-room cooling is also common. Today modern brewing plants perform myriad analyses on their beers for quality control purposes. Shipments of ingredients are analyzed in order to correct for variations; Samples are pulled at almost every step and tested for oxygen content, unwanted microbial infections, and other beer-aging compounds; and a representative sample of the finished product is often stored for months for comparison when complaints are filed.

The Brewing Process

Work in the brewery is typically divided into 7 steps: Mashing, Lautering, Boiling, Fermenting, Conditioning, Filtering, and Filling.

Mashing

Mashing is the process of mixing milled grain (typically malted grain) with water, and heating this mixture up with rests at certain temperatures to allow enzymes in the malt to break down the starch in the grain into sugars, typically maltose. Large breweries usually employ a decoction mash method, in which the thickest part of the mash is boiled to extract more starch from the grain, then returned to the mash to achieve the next rest temperature. These can be classified into one-, two-, and three-step decoctions, depending on how many times part of the mash is drawn off to be boiled. Smaller breweries use infusion mashing, in which the mash is heated directly to go from rest temperature to rest temperature. Some infusion mashes achieve temperature changes by adding hot water, and there are also breweries that do single-step infusion, performing only one rest before lautering. It is important to note that fancy equipment and methods do not guarantee a good beer. Many wonderful beers are produced on inexpensive, bare-bones equipment, and some bad beers are produced in breweries that are state-of-the-art. In large breweries, in which optimal utilization of the brewery equipment is economically necessary, there is at least one dedicated vessel for mashing. In decoction processes there must be at least two. The vessel has a good stirring mechanism to keep the temperature of the mash uniform, and a heating device which is efficient, but will not scorch the malt, and should be insulated to maintain rest temperatures for up to one hour. A spray ball for clean-in-place (CIP) operation should also be included for periodical deep cleaning. Sanitation is not a major concern before wort boiling, so a rinse-down should be all that is necessary between batches. Smaller breweries often use the boil kettle for mashing, or use the lauter tun. The latter case either limits the brewer to single-step infusion mashing, or leaves the brewer with a lauter tun which is not completely appropriate for the lautering process.

Grain milling

The grain used for making beer must first be milled. Milling increases the surface area of the grain, making the starch more accessible, and separates the seed from the husk. Care must be taken when milling to ensure that the starch reserves are sufficiently milled without damaging the husk and providing coarse enough grits that a good filter bed can be formed during lautering. Grains are typically dry milled. Dry mills come in four varieties: two-, four-, five-, and six-roller mills. Hammer mills, which produce a very fine mash, are often used when mash filters are going to be employed in the Lautering process because the grain does not have to form its own filterbed. In modern plants, the grain is often conditioned with water before it is milled to make the husk more pliable, thus reducing breakage and improving lauter speed.

Two-roller mills

Two-roller mills are the simplest variety, in which the grain is crushed between two rollers before it continues on to the mash tun. The spacing between these two rollers can be adjusted by the operator. Thinner spacing usually leads to better extraction, but breaks more husk and leads to a longer lauter.

Four-roller mills

Four-roller mills have two sets of rollers. The grain first goes through rollers with a rather wide gap, which separates the seed from the husk without much damage to the husk, but leaves large grits. Flour is sieved out of the cracked grain, and then the coarse grist and husks are sent through the second set of rollers, which further crush the grist without damaging the crusts. There are three-roller mills, in which one of the rollers is used twice, but they are not recognized by the German brewing industry.

Five- and Six-roller mills

Six-roller mills have three sets of rollers. The first roller crushes the whole kernel, and its output is divided three ways: flour immediately is sent out the mill, grits without a husk proceed to the last roller, and husk, possibly still containing parts of the seed, go to the second set of rollers. From the second roller flour is directly output, as are husks and any possible seed still in them, and the husk-free grits are channeled into the last roller. Five-roller mills are basically six-roller mills in which one of the rollers performs double-duty.

Mashing-in

Mixing of the strike water, water used for mashing in, and milled grist must be done in a such a way as to minimize clumping and oxygen uptake. Traditionally this was done by first adding water to the mash vessel, and then introducing the grist from the top of the vessel in a thin stream. This unfortunately led to a lot of oxygen absorption, and loss of flour dust to the surrounding air. A premasher, which mixes the grist with mash-in temperature water while it is still in the delivery tube, reduces oxygen uptake and prevents dust from being lost. Mashing in is typically done between 35 °C and 45 °C, but for single-step infusion mashes mashing in must be done between 62 °C and 67 °C for amylases to break down the grain's starch into sugars. The weight-to-weight ratio of strike water and grain varies from 1:2 for dark beers in single-step infusions to 1:4 or even 1:5, ratios more suitable for light-colored beers and decoction mashing, where much mash water is boiled off.

Enzymatic rests

In step-infusion and decoction mashing, the mash is heated to different temperatures, at which specific enzymes work optimally. The table at right shows displays the optimal temperature for the enzymes brewers most pay attention to, and what material those enzymes break down. There is some contention in the brewing industry as to just what the optimal temperature is for these enzymes, as it is often very dependent on the pH of the mash, and its thickness. A thicker mash acts as a buffer for the enzymes. Once a step is passed, the enzymes active in that step are denatured, and become permanently inactive. The time between rests is preferably as short as possible, but if the temperature is raised more than 1 °C per minute, enzymes may be prematurely denatured in the transition layer near heating elements.

β-glucanase rest

β-glucan is a chain of the beta isomer of glucose molecules, and found mainly in the cell walls of plants, and in this context is also known as cellulose. A β-glucanase rest done at 40 °C is practiced in order to break down cell walls and make starches more available, thus raising the extraction efficiency. Should the brewer let this rest go on too long, it is possible that a large amount of β-glucan will dissolve into the mash, which can lead to a stuck mash on brew day, and cause filtration problems later in beer production.

Protease rest

Protein degradation via a protease rest plays many roles: production of free-amino nitrogen (FAN) for yeast nutrition, freeing of small proteins from larger proteins for foam stability in the finished product, and reduction of haze-causing proteins for easier filtration and increased beer clarity. In all-malt beers, the malt already provides enough protein for good head retention, and the brewer needs to worry more about more FAN being produced than the yeast can metabolize, leading to off flavors. The haze causing proteins are also more prevalent in all-malt beers, and the brewer must strike a balance between breaking down these proteins, and limiting FAN production.

β-amylase rest

Starch is an enormous molecule made up of branching chains of glucose molecules. β-amylase breaks down these chains from the end molecules forming links of two glucose molecules, i.e. maltose. β-amylase cannot break down the branch points, although some help is found here through low α-amylase activity and enzymes such as limit dextrinase. The maltose will be the yeasts main food source during fermentation. During this rest starches also cluster together forming visible bodies in the mash. This clustering eases the lautering process.

α-amylase rest

The α-amylase rest is also known as the scarification rest, because during this rest the α-amylase breaks down the starches from the inside, and starts cutting off links of glucose one to four glucose molecules in length. The longer glucose chains, along with the remaining branched chains, give body and fullness to the beer.

Decoction "rests"

In decoction part of the mash is taken out of the mash tun and placed in a cooker, where it is boiled for a predetermined amount of time. This caramelizes some of the sugars, given the beer a deeper flavor and color, and frees more starches from the grain, making for a more efficient extraction from the grains. The portion drawn off for decoction is calculated so that the next rest temperature is reached by simply putting the boiled portion back into the mash tun. Before drawing off for decoction, the mash is allowed to settle a bit, and the thicker part is typically taken out for decoction, as the enzymes have dissolved in the liquid, and the starches to be freed are in the grains, not the liquid. This thick mash is then boiled for around 15 minutes, and returned to the mash tun. The mash cooker used in decoction should not be allowed to scorch the mash, but maintaining a uniform temperature in the mash is not a priority.

Mash-out

After the enzyme rests, the mash is raised to its mash out temperature. This frees up about 2% more starch, and makes the mash more viscous, allowing the lauter to process faster. It would be nice to raise the mash to 100 °C for mash out and have a very viscous liquid, but α-Amylase quickly denatures above 78 °C and any starches extracted above this temperature cannot be broken down and will cause a starch haze in the finished product, or in larger quantities an unpleasantly harsh taste can evolve. Therefore the mash out temperature rarely exceeds 78 °C. If the lauter tun is a separate vessel from the mash tun, the mash is transferred to the lauter tun at this time. If the brewery has a combination mash-lauter tun, the agitator is stopped after mash-out temperature is reached and the mash has mixed enough to ensure a uniform temperature.

Lautering

Lautering is the separation of the extracts won during mashing from the spent grain. It is achieved in either a Lauter tun, a wide vessel with a false bottom, or a mash filter, a plate-and-frame filter designed for this kind of separation. Lautering has two stages: first wort run-off, during which the extract is separated in an undiluted state from the spent grains, and sparging, in which extract which remains with the grains is rinsed off with hot water.

Lauter tun

A lauter tun is the traditional vessel used for separation of the extracted wort. While the basic principle of its operation has remained the same since its first use, technological advanced have led to better designed lauter tuns capable of quicker and more complete extraction of the sugars from the grain. The false bottom in a lauter tun has thin (0.7 to 1.1 mm) slits to hold back the solids and allow liquids to pass through. The solids, not the false bottom, form a filtration medium and hold back small solids, allowing the otherwise cloudy mash to run out of the lauter tun as a clear liquid. The false bottom of a lauter tun is today made of wedge wire, which can provide a free-flow surface of up to 12% of the bottom of the tun. The run off tubes should be evenly distributed across the bottom, with one tube servicing about 1 m² of area. Typically these tubes have a wide, shallow cone around them to prevent drastic forces from compacting the grain directly above the outlet. In the past the run-off tubes flowed through swan-neck valves into a wort collection grant. While visually stunning, this system led to a lot of oxygen uptake. Such a system has mostly been replaced either by a central wort-collection vessel or the arrangement of outlet ports into concentric zones, with each zone having a ring-shaped collection pipe. Brewhouses in plain public view, particularly those in brewpubs, often maintain the swan-neck valves and grant for their visual effect. A quality lauter tun has rotating rake arms with a central drive unit. Depending on the size of the lauter tun, there can be between two and six rake arms. Cutting blades hang from these arms. The blade is usually wavy and has a plough-like foot. Each blade has its own path around the tun and the whole rake assembly can be raised and lowered. Attached to each of these arms is a flap which can be raised and lowered for pushing the spend grains out of the tun. The brewer, or better yet an automated system, can raise and lower the rake arms depending on the turbidity (cloudiness) of the run-off, and the tightness of the grain bed, as measured by the pressure difference between the top and bottom of the grain bed. There must be a system for introducing sparge water into the lauter tun. Most systems have a ring of spray heads that insure an even and gentle introduction of the sparge water. The watering system should not beat down on the grain bed and form a channel. Large breweries have self-closing inlets on the bottom of the tun through which the mash is transferred to the lauter tun, and one outlet, also on the bottom of the tun, into which the spent grains fall after lautering is complete. Craft breweries often have manways on the side of the mash tun for spent grain removal, which then must be helped along to a large extent by the brewer. Some small breweries use a combination mash/lauter tun, in which the rake system cannot be implemented because the mixing mechanism for mashing is of higher importance. The stirring blades can be used as an ersatz rake, but typically they cannot be moved up and down, and would disturb the bed too much were they used deep in the grain bed.

Mash Filter

A mash filter is a plate-and-frame filter. The empty frames contain the mash, including the spent grains, and have a capacity of around one hectoliter. The plates contain a support structure for the filter cloth The plates, frames, and filter cloths are arranged in a carrier frame like so: frame, cloth, plate, cloth, with plates at each end of the structure. Newer mash filters have bladders that can press the liquid out of the grains between spargings. The grain does not act like a filtration medium in a mash filter.

Boiling

Boiling the won extracts, called wort, ensures its sterility, and thus prevents a lot of infections. During the boil, hops are added, which contribute their bitter aromas and flavor compounds to the beer, and, along with the heat of the boil, causes proteins in the wort to coagulate and the pH of the wort to fall. Finally, the vapors produced during the boil volatilize off flavors, including dimethyl sulfide precursors. The boil must be conducted so that is it even and intense. The boil lasts between 60 and 120 minutes, depending on its intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of wort the brewer expects to evaporate.

Boiling Equipment

The simplest boil kettles are direct-fired, with a burner underneath. These can produce a vigorous and favorable boil, but are also apt to scorch the wort where the flame touches the kettle, causing caramelization and making clean up difficult. Most breweries use a steam-fired kettle, which uses steam jackets in the kettle to boil the wort. The steam is delivered under pressure by an external boiler. State-of-the-art breweries today use many interesting boiling methods, all of which achieve a more intense boiling and a more complete realization of the goals of boiling. Many breweries have a boiling unit outside of the kettle, sometimes called a calandria, through which wort is pumped. The unit is usually a tall, thin cylinder, with many tubes upwards through it. These tubes provide an enormous surface area on which vapor bubbles can nucleate, and thus provides for excellent volitization. The total volume of wort is circulated seven to twelve times an hour through this external boiler, insuring that the wort is evenly boiled by the end of the boil. The wort is then boiled in the kettle at atmospheric pressure, and through careful control the inlets and outlets on the external boiler, an overpressure can be achieve in the external boiler, raising the boiling point a few Celsius degrees. Upon return to the boil kettle, a vigorous vaporization occurs. The higher temperature due to increased vaporization can reduce boil times up to 30%. External boilers were originally designed to improve performance of kettles which did not provide adequate boiling effect, but have since been adopted by the industry as a sole means of boiling wort. Modern brewhouses can also be equiped with internal calandria, which requires no pump. It works on basically the same principle as external units, but relies on convection to move wort through the boiler. This can prevent overboiling, as a deflector above the boiler reduces foaming, and also reduces evaporation. Internal calandria are generally difficult to clean.

Energy Recovery

Boiling wort takes a lot of energy, and it is wasteful to let this energy escape into the atmosphere. The simplest was to recover this energy is with a kettle vapor condenser (German: Pfaduko, from the really long word Pfannendunstkondensator). A kettle vapor condenser is often nothing more than a plate heat exchanger.

Whirlpool

At the end of the boil, the wort is set into a whirlpool. The so-called teacup effect forces the more dense solids (coagulated proteins, vegetable matter from hops) into a cone in the center of the whirlpool tank. In most large breweries, there is a separate tank for whirlpooling. These tanks have a large diameter to encourage settling, a flat bottom, a tangential inlet near the bottom of the whirlpool, and a outlet on the bottom near the outer edge of the whirlpool. A whirlpool should have no internal protrusions that might slow down the rotation of the liquid. The bottom of the whirlpool is often slightly sloped towards the outlet. Newer whirlpools often have "Denk rings" suspended in the middle of the whirlpool. These rings are aligned horizontally and have about 75% of the diameter of the whirlpool. The Denk rings prevent the formation of secondary eddies in the whirlpool, encouraging the formation of a cohesive trub cone in the middle of the whirlpool. Smaller breweries often use the brewkettle as a whirlpool.

Wort Cooling

After the whirlpool, the wort must be brought down to fermentation temperatures before yeast is added. In modern breweries this is achieved through a plate heat exchanger. A plate heat exchanger has many ridged plates, which form two separate paths. The wort is pumped into the heat exchanger, and goes through every other gap between the plates. The cooling medium, usually water, goes through the other gaps. The ridges in the plates ensure turbulent flow. A good heat exchanger can drop 95 °C wort to 20 °C while warming the cooling medium from about 10 °C to 80 °C. The last few plates often use a cooling medium which can be cooled to below the freezing point, which allows a finer control over the wort-out temperature, and also enables cooling to around 10 °C. After cooling, oxygen is often dissolved into the wort to revitalize the yeast and aid its reproduction.

Fermenting

Fermentation, as a step in the brewing process, starts as soon as yeast is added to the cooled wort. This is also the point at which the product is first called beer. It is during this stage that sugars won from the malt are metabolized into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation tanks come in all sorts of forms, from enormous tanks which can look like storage silos, to five gallon glass carboys in a homebrewer's closet. Most breweries today use cylindroconical vessels, or CCVs, have a conical bottom and a cylindrical top. The cone's aperture is typically around 60°, an angle that will allow the yeast to flow towards the cones apex, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other solids which have fallen to the cones apex can be simply flushed out a port at the apex. Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, which makes harvesting top fermenting yeasts very easy. The open tops of the vessels make the risk of infection greater, but with proper cleaning procedures and careful protocol about who enters fermentation chambers when, the risk can be well controlled. Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel. If they are simple cylindrical tanks with beveled ends, they are arranged vertically, as opposed to conditioning tanks which are usually laid out horizontally. A very few breweries still use wooden vats for fermentation as wood is difficult to keep clean and infection-free and must be repitched more or less yearly. After high kraeusen a bung device (German: Spundapparat) is often put on the tanks to allow the C O₂ produced by the yeast to naturally carbonate the beer. This bung device can be set to a given pressure to match the type of beer being produced. The more pressure the bung holds back, the more carbonated the beer becomes.

Conditioning

When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been almost completely digested, the fermentation slows down and the yeast starts to settle to the bottom of the tank. At this stage, the beer is cooled to around freezing, which encourages settling of the yeast, and causes proteins to coagulate and settle out with the yeast. Unpleasant flavors such as phenolic compounds become insoluble in the cold beer, and the beer's flavor becomes smoother. During this time pressure is maintained on the tanks to prevent the beer from going flat. If the fermentation tanks have cooling jackets on them, as opposed to the whole fermentation cellar being cooled, conditioning can take place in the same tank as fermentation. Otherwise separate tanks (in a separate cellar) must be employed.

Filtering

Filtering the beer stabilizes the flavor, and gives beer its polished shine and brilliance. Not all beer is filtered. When tax determination is required by local laws, it is typically done at this stage in a calibrated tank. Filters come in many types. Many use pre-made filtration media such as sheets or candles, while others use a fine powder made of, for example, diatomaceous earth, also called kieselguhr, which is introduced into the beer and recirculated past screens to form a filtration bed. Filters range from rough filters that remove much of the yeast and any solids (e.g. hops, grain particles) left in the beer, to filters tight enough to strain color and body from the beer. Normally used filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine and sterile. Rough filtration leaves some cloudiness in the beer, but it is noticeably clearer than unfiltered beer. Fine filtration gives a glass of beer that you could read a newspaper through, with no noticeable cloudiness. Finally, as its name implies, sterile filtration is fine enough that almost all microorganisms in the beer are removed during the filtration process.

Sheet (Pad) Filters

These filters use pre-made media and are relatively straightforward. The sheets are manufactured to allow only particles smaller than a given size through, and the brewer is free to choose how finely to filter the beer. The sheets are placed into the filtering frame, sterilized (with hot water, for example) and then used to filter the beer. The sheets can be flushed if the filter becomes blocked, and usually the sheets are disposable and are replaced between filtration sessions. Often the sheets contain powdered filtration media to aid in filtration. It should be kept in mind that pre-made filters have two sides. One with loose holes, and the other with tight holes. Flow goes from the side with loose holes to the side with the tight holes, with the intent that large particles get stuck in the large holes while leaving enough room around the particles and filter medium for smaller particles to go through and get stuck in tighter holes. Sheets are sold in nominal ratings, and typically 90% of particles larger than the nominal rating are caught by the sheet.

Kieselguhr Filters

Filters that use a powder medium are considerably more complicated to operate, but can filter much more beer before needing to be regenerated. Common media include diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, and perlite.

Packaging

Packaging is putting the beer into the containers in which it will leave the brewery. Typically this means in bottles and kegs, but it might include bulk tanks for high-volume customers.

Craft Brewing

Before Prohibition in the United States, breweries were local institutions, with a few exceptions. The costs involved in moving large quantities of beer while maintaining its quality necessitated that beer be made near where it was to be consumed. Prohibition, as could be expected, closed most of the breweries in the United States, and the few that were able to remain open by producing near beer, malt extract, yeast, and other beer-related products, were in an advantageous position to produce and sell beer after Prohibition was lifted. During Prohibition, the advancements in refrigeration and motorvehicles made large regional and national breweries possible. These remaining breweries quickly became large enough to be household names all over the nation, and concentrated mostly on the style with the broadest appeal: American light lagers. Local breweries, with their niche beers, were lost in America. In 1978, Jimmy Carter signed into law a bill explicitly allowing people to brew beer for private consumption. As the homebrewing movement grew, homebrewers looked to re-create beers they had enjoyed in places with a more varied beer assortment. The rise of imported beers and homebrewing brought a demand for more beer styles, and locally brewed beer. Answering this need, smaller breweries started popping up across America, and a whole industry grew around the microbrewing industry. Craft brewing takes different forms in different countries. In America, where the infrastructure needed to be reinvented, and many brewers came from the homebrewing world, where items are adapted to use in brewing, breweries take many different forms, and are often made from adapted equipment. European craft breweries, which did not experience prohibition and have a deep cultural tradition in many areas, are often smaller versions of large breweries, and are equipped with all the bells and whistles as large breweries, such as automation and computer control of the lautering process. The number of craft brewers in the United States has been slowly declining in the last decade, while craft brewers have made up a larger percentage of beer sales in America, likely reflecting a more discriminating customer, who is less tolerant of off flavors and poorly made beers.

Home Brewing

Main Article: Homebrewing

References

- ISBN 3921690390: Technology Brewing and Malting, Wolfgang Kunze, 2nd revised edtion, VLB Berlin. Available at [http://www.vlb-berlin.org/english/index.html their website]
- [http://www.beertown.org/craftbrewing/statistics.html http://www.beertown.org/craftbrewing/statistics.html]: Craft Brewery definitions at the bottom of the page

Brewing

Brewing is the production of alcoholic beverages and alcohol fuel through fermentation. This is the method used in beer production, although the term can be used for other drinks such as sake, mead and wine. The term is also sometimes used to refer to any chemical mixing process. Brewing has a very long history, and archeological evidence tells us that this technique was used in ancient Egypt. Descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in Sumerian writings, some of the oldest known writing of any sort. The brewing industry is part of most western economies.

Brewing beer

All beers are brewed using a process based on a simple formula. Key to the process is malted grain, traditionally barley, but often also wheat and, less commonly rye. (When malting rye, due care must be taken to prevent ergot poisoning (ergotism), as rye is particularly prone to developing this toxic fungus during the malting process.) Malt is made by allowing a grain to germinate, after which it is then dried in a kiln and sometimes roasted. The germination process creates a number of enzymes, notably α-amylase and β-amylase, which will be used to convert the starch in the grain into sugar. Depending on the amount of roasting, the malt will take on dark colour and strongly influence the colour and flavour of the beer. The malt is crushed to break apart the grain kernels, increase their surface area, and separate the smaller pieces from the husks. The resulting grist is mixed with heated water in a vat called a "mash tun" for a process known as "mashing". During this process, natural enzymes within the malt break down much of the starch into sugars which play a vital part in the fermentation process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time various temperature rests (waiting periods) activate different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the desires of the brewmaster. The activity of these enzymes convert the starches of the grains to dextrines and then to fermentable sugars such as maltose. The Mash Tun generally contains a slotted "false bottom" or other form of manifold which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain. A mash rest at 104 °F or 40 °C activates beta-glucanase, which breaks down gummy beta-glucans in the mash, making the sugars flow out more freely later in the process. In the modern mashing process commercial fungal based beta-glucanase may be added as a supplement. A mash rest from 120°F to 130 °F (49°C to 55°C) activates various proteinases, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the beer to be hazy. But care is of the essence since the head on beer is also composed primarily of proteins, so too aggressive a protein rest can result in a beer that cannot hold a head. This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts which are decreasingly popular in Germany and the Czech Republic, or non-malted grains such as corn and rice, which are widely used in North American beers. Finally, a mash rest temperature of 149 to 160 °F (65 to 71 °C) is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by the yeast later in the brewing process. Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range produces more low-order sugars which are more fermentable by the yeast. This in turn creates a beer lower in body and higher in alcohol. A rest closer to the higher end of the range creates more higher-order sugars which are less fermentable by the yeast, so a fuller-bodied beer with less alcohol is the result. After the mashing, the resulting liquid is strained from the grains in a process known as lautering. Prior to lautering, the mash temperature may be raised to 165F to 170F (known as a mashout) to deactivate enzymes. Additional water may be sprinkled on the grains to extract additional sugars (a process known as sparging). At this point the liquid is known as wort (rhymes with hurt). The wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or kettle where it is boiled with hops and sometimes other ingredients such as herbs or sugars. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, precipitate proteins, isomerize hop resins, concentrate and sterilize the wort. Hops add flavour, aroma and bitterness to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a "whirl-pool" and the clarified wort is then cooled. The wort is then moved into a "fermentation vessel" where yeast is added or "pitched" with it. The yeast converts the sugars from the malt into alcohol, carbon dioxide and other components through a process called Glycolysis. After a week to three weeks, the fresh (or "green") beer is run off into conditioning tanks. After conditioning for a week to several months, the beer is often filtered to remove yeast and particulates. The "bright beer" is then ready for serving or packaging. There are four main families of beer styles determined by the variety of yeast used in their brewing.

Ale (top fermenting yeasts)

Ale yeasts ferment at warmer temperatures between 15°C and 20°C (60°F to 68°F), and occasionally as high as 24°C (75°F). Pure ale yeasts form a foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, though many British yeasts contain yeast strains that settle to the bottom. Because of this they are often referred to as Top Fermenting yeast. Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation, though they benefit from additional storage of up to two months. Ales range in color from very pale to black opaque. England is best known for its variety of Ales.

Lager (bottom fermenting yeasts)

While the nature of yeast was not fully understood until Emil Hansen of the Carlsberg brewery in Denmark isolated a single yeast cell in the 1800s, brewers in Bavaria had for centuries been selecting these cold-fermenting Lager yeasts by storing or "Lagern" their beers in cold alpine caves. The process of natural selection meant that the wild yeasts that were most cold tolerant would be the ones that would remain actively fermenting in the beer that was stored in the caves. Some of these Bavarian yeasts were stolen and brought back to the Carlsberg brewery around the time that Hansen did his famous work. Lager yeast tends to collect at the bottom of the fermenter and is often referred to as Bottom Fermenting yeast. Lager is fermented at much lower temperatures, around 10°C (50°F), compared to typical ale fermentation temperatures of 18°C (65°F). It is then stored for 30 days or longer close to the freezing point. During the storing or Lagering process, the beer mellows and flavours become smoother. Sulfur components developed during fermentation disipate. The popularity of lager was a major factor that led to the rapid introduction of refrigeration in the early 1900s. Today, lagers represent the vast majority of beers produced, the most famous being a light lager called Pilsner which originated in Pilsen, Czech Republic (Plzeň in czech language). It is a common misconception that all Lagers are light in color but lagers range from very light to black opaque just like Ales.

Beers of Spontaneous Fermentation (wild yeasts)

These beers are nowadays primarily only brewed around Brussels, Belgium. They are fermented by means of wild yeast strains that live in a part of the Zenne river which flows through Brussels. These beers are also called Lambic beers. However with the advent of yeast banks and the [http://www.ncyc.co.uk/ NCYC], brewing these beers, although not through spontaneous fermentation, is possible anywhere.

Beers of mixed origin (blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers)

These beers are blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers or they are ales/lagers which are also fermented by wild yeasts.

Homebrewing

Homebrewing typically refers to the brewing of beer on a very small scale, as a hobby for personal consumption or small scale distribution at parties or picnics. It can also refer to the home production of alcohol fuel, such as producing homebrew E85, and by analogy, can also refer to producing biodiesel at home. The expression is also used for manufacturing anabolic injection solutions in bodybuilding and related sports.

The Process

A typical batch of homebrewed beer is five US gallons (19 l) in volume, which is roughly enough for two cases — or 48 12-ounce (355 mL) bottles — of beer. In Britain homebrew is typically produced in 5 Imperial gallon (23 l) batches. It is produced by boiling water, malt extract and hops together in a large kettle and then cooling the resulting wort and adding yeast for fermenting. Advanced homebrewers make malt by extracting the fermentable sugars from malted barley by mashing the ground grain in hot water. Either way, the wort is cooled down to pitching temperature (70-75 °F or 21-24 °C). Often, cooling is aided by a variety of wort chillers consisting of copper tubing through which cold water flows. Because a chiller can cool the wort quickly, it is the preferred method. This quick cooling prevents the potential for early bacterial contamination or oxidation of the wort. Primary fermentation takes place in a bucket or carboy, sometimes left open but often stoppered with the carbon dioxide gas produced venting through a fermentation lock. During this time, temperatures should be kept at optimum temperature for the fermentation process. For ale this temperature is usually 65-75°F / 18-24°C, and for lager it is usually much colder, around 50°F / 10°C. Starting within 12 hours and continuing over the next few days a vigorous fermentation takes place. During this stage the simple sugar maltose in the wort is consumed by the yeast. A layer of sediment, the trub, appears at the bottom of the fermenter, composed of heavy fats, proteins and inactive yeast. A sure sign that primary fermentation has finished is that the head of foam (krausen), built by bubbling of CO2, falls. Often, the beer is then siphoned into another container, usually a carboy, for aging or secondary fermentation. The siphoning is done to separate the batch from the afore-mentioned layer of sediment so that it is not used as food, as this can give the beer a off-flavor. During secondary fermentation the heavier, more complex sugars and impurities are digested. Secondary fermentation can take from 2 to 4 weeks, sometimes longer, depending on the type of beer. Some homebrewers will keep the batch in the primary fermenter (called single stage fermentation) for secondary fermentation and simply put up with any off flavors. This eliminates the need for a second container, reduces labor, and reduces the likelihood of contaminating the batch with bacteria, or oxidizing it, during transfer to the second container. This is a good beginner strategy, especially for those not skilled with siphoning liquids. Once this secondary fermentation is finished, the beer is ready for carbonation. There are two methods of carbonation. The first method does not require much capital expenditure per batch but is more time consuming. About 3/4 cup of corn sugar (dextrose) or other fermentable sugar is added to the beer, which is then transferred to bottles and then capped, or placed in a keg. The fermentation of the priming sugar with left-over yeast suspended in the beer causes the carbon dioxide to be forced into solution in the beer. This takes 1-2 weeks. The second method involves pressurizing carbon dioxide into the beer into a special type of keg - either a soda pop keg, the kind used in restaurants, or a pressure barrel. Canisters of carbon dioxide, soda chargers, can be released into the pressure barrel directly. The carbonation process then occurs almost instantaneously. There are homebrewing kits available that eliminate the need of the first stage – boiling. These kits, sometimes known as "beer in a bag", contain wort (sometimes concentrated) and yeast, so all the homebrewer has to do is the fermentation. Generally, the quality of beer from these kits is not on par with beer made from all-grain or even malt extracts. Sediment remains at the base of the bottle, even after secondary fermentation. Some wheat beers, however, demand the sediment be rotated through the beer before it is served. There are several instruction books available. Some are more detailed than others, but homebrewing can be as simple or as complicated as you want it to be. The basic process does not require a great deal of technical knowledge, but attention to cleanliness is essential.

Brewing culture

Patience is required in homebrewing. The whole brewing process can take from two weeks to several months or even years, depending on the style of beer. Some enthusiasts brew beer in far larger quantities than the typical 5 gallon batch, sometimes as a prelude to commercial production. It is not unusual for a homebrewer to have several batches in different stages of completion to permit the dispensing of quality homebrew at short notice. Advanced homebrewers often prefer to brew "all-grain" batches of beer, by mashing the grain themselves to reduce starch into sugars needed by the yeast. Such techniques allow a greater control over the final quality of the beer than malt extract brewing. A large vessel called a mash tun holds the water at various temperatures to break the starch in malt into fermentable sugars which become alcohol and dextrines (unfermentable carbohydrates) which give the beer body. The spent grain is removed in a perforated container called a lauter tun and brewing proceeds as normal. Often, homebrewers use one vessel with a perforated false bottom for both mashing and lautering. A hybrid called grain extract, or partial mash uses both home-mashed malt and malt extract. This method is preferable to those who do not want to invest in larger equipment required for all-grain brewing, but would like to experiment with mashing grain. People homebrew for a variety of reasons. Homebrewed beer can be cheaper than commercially equivalent brews, however most homebrewers customize their recipes to their own tastes, which tends to be more expensive. For instance, hopheads, or fans of bitter beer, can hop their beer far beyond what would normally be considered excessive. Dark beer enthusiasts can create beers that are the antithesis of the commercially dominant paler style. Some homebrewers strive for perfection of specific styles of beer and enter their products in competitions. Others simply brew to have styles of beer on hand to drink and share that are otherwise commercially unavailable, or in an unacceptably poor state when they are available. Others, with access to extremely large quantities of bio-materials (grains, rice, beets, potatoes, etc.), produce their own alcohol fuel for powering farm equipment, as well as cars and trucks, at a considerable cost-savings relative to paying for fuel at the pump.

Legality

In 1978, US President Jimmy Carter signed into law a bill explicitly allowing home beer and winemaking in the US. However, this only applies at the Federal level as the individual [http://www.beertown.org/homebrewing/legal.html States] are still free to set their own laws concerning beer and wine making. Note that home distillation of alcohol is still illegal in the United States for human consumption — a situation representing the majority of other countries. However, with the appropriate BATF permit, it is nonetheless legal in the United States to own a still and to produce high proof ethanol for making alcohol fuel at home. Any such home-produced alcohol fuel that is sold must be denatured, i.e., poisoned, to prevent human consumption of untaxed alcohol, effectively making it a capital crime through a slow, painful death for any person that 'cheats the taxman.' The most common denaturing agent used for homebrew alcohol fuel is gasoline, which is typically added until the percentage of gasoline contained in the denatured alcohol and gasoline mixture is 5% of the total combined volume. Taxation of homebrew alcohol fuel that is sold varies from state to state, and even from county to county within states. Most states in the U.S. permit brewing 100 gallons of beer per person over the age of 21 per household, up to a maximum of 200 gallons per year. Because alcohol is taxed by the federal governments via excise taxes, it is illegal for homebrewers to sell any beer they brew.

External links

- [http://brewiki.org Brewiki]
- [http://www.brewery.org/ The Brewery]
- [http://www.beertown.org/homebrewing/membership.html American Homebrewers Association]
- [http://www.brewcommune.com BrewCommune] (Community site)
- [http://www.tastybrew.com Tasty Brew] (Community site)
- [http://www.beertools.com Beer Tools] (Semi-commercial community Site)
- [http://www.bodensatz.com Bodensatz] (Homebrewing portal)
- [http://hbd.org/nychg/index.html New York City Homebrewers Guild] (Homebrewing Club)
- [http://www.strandbrewers.org Strand Brewers' Club] (Homebrewing club)
- [http://www.easyhomebrew.com Easy Homebrew] (Semi-commercial how-to site)
- [http://www.homebrewers.ca Canadian Amateur Brewers Association] (Enthusiast organziation)
- [http://www.howtobrew.com/sitemap.html How to Brew] - Online book on how to homebrew beer, By John Palmer.
- [http://www.myownbeer.com/recipes/ Homebrew] (Beer recipes)
- [http://www.realbeer.com/discussions/forumdisplay.php?s=&forumid=11 Real Beer Homebrewing Forum] (Community site)
- [http://www.brewboard.com The BrewBoard](Community site)
- [http://www.burp.org Brewers United for Real Potables (BURP)] (Washington DC Metro Area Homebrewing Club)
- [http://byo.com/ byo.com] Home Brewer Magazine
- [http://www.themechfamily.com/fbbgtba.txt The Frugal Beer Brewers Guide To Brewing Aids]
- [http://www.thehomebrewstore.com/HBS.htm Home Brew Select site] Collection of Homebrewing Recipes
- [http://www.homebrewsupply.com/ Home Brew Joe] Semi-commercial how-to site
- [http://www.geocities.com/silverhammerbrew/ Silver Hammer Brewing] Hobby site Category:Beer

Microbrewery

.]] A microbrew is a beer produced in relatively small quantities by a microbrewery, a small commercial brewery. The term and trend originated in the United States in the late 1980s. Technically, any brewery that produces less than 15,000 barrels of beer annually is considered a microbrewery. July 2003 estimates published by the [http://www.beertown.org/ Association of Brewers] show there are 366 microbreweries in the United States. In the early twentieth century, Prohibition drove many breweries into bankruptcy because they could not rely on selling "sacramental" wine as wineries of that era did. After several decades of consolidation of breweries, most American commercial beer was produced by a few very large corporations, resulting in a very uniform mild-tasting lager of which Budweiser is a well-known example. Consequently, some beer drinkers craving variety turned to homebrewing and eventually a few started doing so on a slightly larger scale. For inspiration, they turned to Britain, Germany, and Belgium, where a centuries-old tradition of artisan beer and ale production had never died out. The popularity of these products was such that the trend quickly spread, and hundreds of small breweries sprang up, often attached to a bar (known as a "brewpub") where the product could be enjoyed. As microbrews profliferated, some became more than microbrews, necessitating the definition of the broader category of craft beer - high quality, generally all-malt, beer. Microbreweries are gradually appearing in other countries (such as New Zealand and Australia) where a similar market concentration exists. For example, microbreweries are flourishing in Canada, which (like the US) has a large domestic market dominated by large companies. Britain also has a large number of small commercial breweries making real ale, the smallest of which are known as microbreweries and can be found in spaces as restricted as a single domestic garage. There is less of a divide between these and the giant companies, however, as breweries of all sizes exist to fill the gap.

External links

- [http://www.beertown.org/ Beertown.org, The Brewers Association Website]
- [http://www.realbeer.com/destinations/ Real Beer Media, Inc. Website @ Realbeer.com]
- [http://www.beertown.org/craftbrewing/brew_locator.asp Thirsty? Locate a Microbrew near you! Beertown.org's Brewery Locator]
- [http://www.realbeer.com/destinations/ Still thirsty? Find a Beer @ Realbeer.com]
- [http://www.beertown.org/craftbrewing/events.asp Check for a Beer Festival in your area! Beertown's Event List]
- [http://www.realbeer.com/search/eventscalendar/index.php More Events from Realbeer.com]
- [http://www.beertown.org/craftbrewing/guilds.html Associations and Guilds @ Beertown.org]
- [http://www.beertown.org/events/gabf/index.htm The Great American Beer Festival in Denver]
- [http://www.scbrewexpo.com/ Penn State's Brew Expo]
- [http://www.ratebeer.com/Ratings/Ratings-Top50.asp Top micro and craft brews as rated on RateBeer.com] Category:Beer

Billion

:For the modem manufacturer, see Billion (company). The word "billion" and its equivalents in other languages refer to one of two different numbers.

10^¹²

The original meaning, established in the 15th century, was "a million of a million" (1,000,000², hence the name billion), or 10¹² = 1 000 000 000 000. This system, known in French as the échelle longue ("long scale"), was formerly used in the United Kingdom and is used in most countries where English is not the primary language. 10¹² is referred to as a trillion in the "short scale" system.

10^⁹

In the late 17th century a change was made in the way of writing large numbers. Numbers had been separated into groups of six digits, but at this time the modern grouping of three digits came into use. As a result, a minority of Italian and French scientists began using the word "billion" to mean 10⁹ (one thousand million, or 1 000 000 000), and correspondingly redefined trillion and higher numbers to mean powers of one thousand rather than one million. This is known in French as the échelle courte ("short scale") and is now officially used by English-speaking countries, as well as Brazil, Puerto Rico, Turkey and Greece.

Synonyms

Use of "thousand million" for 10⁹ and "million million" for 10¹² can avoid ambiguity; however, British media, including the BBC, which long used "thousand million" for this reason, use "billion" to mean 10⁹. The old word "milliard", also found in many other languages, can be used for 10⁹ but is unfamiliar even to many native English speakers. See long and short scales for a more detailed discussion and usage advice.

Trivia

The facts below give a sense of how large one billion (taken as 10⁹) is in the context of passage of time.
- About a billion seconds ago, the parents of middle school children were themselves in elementary school. (One billion seconds is roughly 31.7 years.)
- About a billion minutes ago, the Roman Empire was flourishing. (One billion minutes is roughly 1,900 years.)
- About a billion hours ago, modern men and their ancestors were living in the Stone Age (more precisely, the Middle Paleolithic). (One billion hours is roughly 114,000 years.)
- About a billion days ago, Australopithecus, an ape-like creature related to an ancestor of modern humans, roamed the African savannas. (One billion days is roughly 2.7 million years.)
- About a billion months ago, dinosaurs walked the earth during the late Cretaceous. (One billion months is roughly 82 million years.)
- About a billion years ago, the first multicellular organisms appeared on Earth. (The universe is now thought to be about 13.7 billion years old.) In terms of distance:
- A billion centimeters is about the distance from Chicago, Illinois, USA to Tokyo, Japan.
- A billion inches is 15,783 miles, more than halfway around the world and sufficient to reach any point on the globe from any other point.
- A billion meters is almost three times the distance from the Earth to the Moon.

External links

- [http://alt-usage-english.org/excerpts/fxbill00.html alt.usage.english FAQ] Category:Integers Category:Large numbers

Barrel (unit)

:See Barrel (disambiguation) for other uses. The barrel is the name of several units of measurement.
- A barrel of crude oil or other petroleum product (abbreviated bbl) is 42 U.S. gallons (158.97 litres), or 35 Imperial gallons. The measurement originated in the early Pennsylvania oil fields. Both the 42 gallon barrels (based on the old English wine measure, the tierce) and the 40 gallon (151.4 liters) whiskey barrels were used. The 40 gallon barrel was the most common size early, but by 1866 the oil barrel was standardized at 42 gallons. Oil has not been shipped in barrels for a very long time [http://www.slate.com/id/2115219/], but it is still used as a unit for measurement and pricing.
- In the UK, a standard beer barrel is 36 UK gallons, about 163.7 litres.
- In the U.S., a standard barrel for liquids is 31.5 U.S. gallons (119.2 litres), half a hogshead. However, a standard beer barrel is 31 U.S. gallons (117.3 litres), the result of tax law definitions.
- In the U.S., a standard dry barrel is also equivalent to 105 dry quarts (115.6 litres). Category:Units of volume Category:Customary units in the United States Category:Imperial units ja:バレル

Hectoliter

The litre (spelled litre in Commonwealth English and liter in American English) is a unit of capacity. There are two official symbols: lowercase l and uppercase L. The litre is not an SI unit but is accepted for use with the SI. The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m³).

Definitions and equivalents

A litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre (1 L = 1 dm³).
- 1 L = 1000 cm³ (exactly)
- 1000 L = 1 m³ (exactly)

SI prefixes applied to the litre

The litre may be used with some SI prefixes.

Name origin

The word "litre" is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek via Latin.

Other common metric equivalencies

- 1 µL (microlitre) = 1 mm³ (cubic millimetre)

Conversions

One litre :≈ 0.87987699 Imperial quart ::Inverse: One Imperial quart ≡ 1.1365225 litres :≈ 1.056688 US fluid quarts ::Inverse: One US fluid quart ≡ 0.946352946 litres :≈ 0.0353146667 cubic foot ::Inverse: One cubic foot ≡ 28.316846592 litres One millilitre :≈ 0.03519507972785404600 Imperial fluid ounce ::Inverse: One Imperial fluid ounce ≡ 28.4130625 mL :≈ 0.0338140227018429971686 US fluid ounce ::Inverse: One US fluid ounce ≡ 29.5735295625 mL :≈ 0.0000353146667 cubic foot ::Inverse: One cubic foot ≡ 28,316.846592 mL

Explanation

Litres are most commonly used for items measured by the capacity or size of their container (such as fluids and berries), whereas cubic metres (and derived units) are most commonly used for items measured either by their dimensions or their displacements. The litre is often also used in some calculated measurements, such as density (kg/L), allowing an easy comparison with the density of water. One litre of water weighs almost exactly one kilogram. Similarly: 1 ml of water weighs about 1 g; 1000 litres of water weighs about 1000 kg (1 tonne). This relationship is due to the history of the unit but since 1964 has not been part of the definition.

Symbol

Originally, the only symbol for the litre was l (lowercase letter l), following the SI convention that only those unit symbols that abbreviate the name of a person start with a capital letter. In many English-speaking countries, the most common shape of a handwritten Arabic digit 1 is just a vertical stroke, that is it lacks the upstroke added in many other cultures. Therefore, the digit 1 may easily be confused with the letter l. On some typewriters, particularly older ones, the l key had to be used to type the numeral 1. Further, in some typefaces the two characters are nearly indistinguishable. This caused some concern, especially in the medical community. As a result, L (uppercase letter L) was accepted as an alternative symbol for litre in 1979. The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology now recommends the use of the uppercase letter L, a practice that is also widely followed in Canada and Australia. In these countries, the symbol L is also used with prefixes, as in mL and µL, instead of the traditional ml and µl used in Europe. Prior to 1979, the symbol ℓ (script small l, U+2113), came into common use in some countries; for example, it was recommended by South African Bureau of Standards publication M33 in the 1970s. This symbol can still be encountered occasionally in some English-speaking countries, but it is not used in most countries and not officially recognised by the BIPM, the International Organization for Standardization, or any national standards body.

History

In 1793, the litre was introduced in France as one of the new "Republican Measures", and defined as one cubic decimetre. In 1879, the CIPM adopted the definition of the litre, and the symbol l (lowercase letter l). In 1901, at the 3rd CGPM conference, the litre was redefined as the space occupied by 1 kg of pure water at the temperature of its maximum density (3.98 °C) under a pressure of 1 atm. This made the litre equal to about 1.000 028 dm³ (earlier reference works usually put it at 1.000 027 dm³). In 1964, at the 12th CGPM conference, the litre was once again defined in exact relation to the metre, as another name for the cubic decimetre, that is, exactly 1 dm³. [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm#footnote1 NIST Reference] In 1979, at the 16th CGPM conference, the alternative symbol L (uppercase letter L) was adopted. It also expressed a preference that in the future only one of these two symbols should be retained, but in 1990 said it was still too early to do so.

External links

- [http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/ BIPM's "SI Brochure"]
- [http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter4/table6.html BIPM's "(Table 6 -) Non-SI units accepted for use with the International System"]
- [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html NIST note on SI units]
- [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/outside.html NIST recommends uppercase letter L]
- [http://www.npl.co.uk/npl/reference/international.html UK National physical laboratory's "Internationally recognised non SI units" page] Category:Units of volume ko:리터 ja:リットル simple:Litre th:ลิตร

Wholesaler

Wholesaling consists of the sale of goods/merchandise to retailers, to industrial, commercial, institutional, or other professional business users or to other wholesalers and related subordinated services. [http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/completeacc_e.htm#chn (WTO - World Trade Organisation)].

Distributor

This article is about distributors in internal combustion engines. For distributors in the film industry, see film distributor. film distributor film distributor]] film distributor The distributor in the ignition system of an internal combustion engine is a device which routes the high voltage in the correct firing order to the spark plugs. It consists of a rotating arm or rotor inside the distributor cap, on top of the distributor shaft. The rotor contacts the central high voltage cable from the coil via a spring loaded carbon brush. The rotor arm passes close to (but does not touch) the output contacts which connect via high tension cables to the spark plug of each cylinder. Within the distributor, the high voltage energy is able to jump the small gap from the rotor arm to the contact. The distributor shaft has a cam that operates the contact breaker. Opening the points causes a high induction voltage in the system's ignition coil. The distributor also houses the centrifugal advance unit: a set of hinged weights attached to the distributor shaft, that cause the breaker points mounting plate to slightly rotate and advance the spark timing with higher engine rpm. In addition, the distributor has a vacuum advance unit that advances the timing even further as a function of the vacuum in the inlet manifold. Usually there is also a capacitor attached to the distributor. The capacitor is connected parallel to the breaker points, to suppress sparking and prevent wear of the points. Around the 1970s the primary breaker points were largely replaced with Hall effect sensors. As this is a non-contacting device and the primary circuit is controlled by solid-state electronics, a great amount of maintenance in point adjustment and replacement was eliminated. This also eliminates any problem with breaker follower or cam wear, and by eliminating a side load extends distributor shaft bearing life. The remaining secondary (high voltage) circuit was as described above, using a single coil and a rotary distributor.

Direct ignition

Modern engine designs are tending to do away with the distributor and coil, instead performing the distribution function in the primary circuit electronically and applying the primary pulse to individual coils on top of each spark plug (Direct Ignition or coil-on-plug). This avoids the need to switch very high voltages, which is very often a source of trouble, especially in damp conditions.

Patents

- - Ignition apparatus - Arthur Atwater Kent
- - Ignition apparatus - Arthur Atwater Kent
- - Ignition apparatus - Arthur Atwater Kent
- - Ignition apparatus - Arthur Atwater Kent
- - Ignition apparatus - Arthur Atwater Kent
- - Ignition apparatus - Arthur Atwater Kent
- - Ingnition system - Frank Conrad

Brewpub

A brewpub is a microbrewery, often combined with a restaurant, that sells the majority of its beer on premises. The first American brewpub was Grant's Brewery Pub in Yakima, Washington, which opened in 1982. According to Merriam-Webster, the term was first used in 1984. July 2003 estimates published by the [http://www.beertown.org/ Association of Brewers] show there are over 1,000 brewpubs in the United States. Over a third of those are in the west coast states of Washington, Oregon, and California, with Oregon having the highest number of brewpubs per capita of any state in the country. There are brewpubs in countries other than the U.S., for instance in Ireland, however they are not commonly called brewpubs there; they are simply referred to as pubs. Explicit reference to the fact that certain pub-restaurants brew their own beer on the premises is rarely made in Ireland. Pubs are simply referred to by their name and in case they contain microbreweries it is assumed that the conversation partner is aware of this. Where that is not the case, it is explained with a short sentence such as "They brew their own beer in that pub." In Dublin, Ireland, there used to be numerous such pubs along the River Liffey in the previous centuries. The number of pubs brewing their own beer markedly declined with the advent of large beer brands (such as Guinness), but there still are some pubs that do so. In Munich, Germany, most of the brewpubs are not independent but owned by larger breweries. In Britain during the 20th century most of the traditional pubs which brewed their own beer in the brew'ouse round the back of the pub, were bought out by larger breweries and ceased brewing on the premises. One of the last to do so was The Old Swan (known locally as Ma Pardoe's) in Netherton near Dudley. Brewing stopped in 1993 but after a refurbishment of the brewhouse it reopened in 2001. Starting in 1979 there was a revival of brewpubs in the UK, the "Firkin" pubs. The chain finally closed in 1999 after a takeover by Punch Tarverns. The first brewpub was the Goose & Firkin in South London. More recently there has also been a revival of independently owned brewpubs in the UK.

External links

- [http://www.abtonline.com/intro.html History of the Brewpub]
- [http://www.quaffale.org.uk/breweries/firkin.html Firkin entry at Quaffle]
- [http://www.camra.org.uk/SHWebClass.ASP?WCI=ShowDoc&DocID=2369 The Old Swan] at the Campaign For Real Ale website. Category:Beer Category:Drinking establishments

Sierra Nevada Brewing Company

The Sierra Nevada Brewing Company was established in 1979 by homebrewer Ken Grossman (and Paul Camusi, who later sold his share in the company to Grossman). Located in Chico, California, Sierra Nevada Brewing is one of the most popular microbreweries currently operating in the United States. Their pale ale is world renowned, and the brewery produces about 600,000 barrels of beer per year. In the winter they brew a special seasonal called "Celebration" which is much like the pale ale only hoppier with hints of oak and cinnamon. This beer is consistently rated high in BeerAdvocate.com's Top 25 list. In 1989, after moving the brewery to its current location, Ken added The Sierra Nevada Taproom and Restaurant, which serves lunch and dinner. More recently the brewery opened "The Big Room", a live music venue located inside the brewery's facilities, and featuring world-class acts from country, bluegrass, folk, rock, blues and other musical genres. Sierra Nevada Brewing Company is the second best-selling craft beer brand in the United States, behind the Boston Beer Company, makers of Samuel Adams. Sierra Nevada has sponsored a professional bicycle racing team since 2001, now co-sponsored by Kodak EasyShare Gallery.

Beers

Sierra Nevada Classics

Pale Ale

- Alcohol Content: 5.6% by volume
- Beginning Gravity: 13.0 Plato
- Ending Gravity: 2.8 Plato
- Bitterness Units: 37
- Yeast: Top-fermenting Ale Yeast
- Bittering Hops: Magnum & Perle
- Finishing Hops: Cascade
- Malts: Two-row Pale & Caramel

Porter

- Alcohol Content: 5.6% by volume
- Beginning Gravity: 14.5 Plato
- Ending Gravity: 3.8 Plato
- Bitterness Units: 40
- Yeast: Top-fermenting Ale Yeast
- Bittering Hops: Goldings
- Finishing Hops: Willamette
- Malts: Two-row Pale, Munich, Chocolate & Caramel

Wheat

- Alcohol Content: 4.4% by volume
- Beginning Gravity: 11.5 Plato
- Ending Gravity: 2.3 Plato
- Bitterness Units: 27
- Yeast: Top-fermenting Ale Yeast
- Bittering Hops: Perle
- Finishing Hops: Spalt
- Malts: Two-row Pale, Dextrin & Wheat

Stout

- Alcohol Content: 5.8% by volume
- Beginning Gravity: 16.0 Plato
- Ending Gravity: 4.8 Plato
- Bitterness Units: 60
- Yeast: Top-fermenting Ale Yeast
- Bittering Hops: Magnum
- Finishing Hops: Cascade & Willamette
- Malts: Two-row Pale, Munich, Caramel & Black

Seasonals

Summerfest

- Alcohol Content: 5.0% by volume
- Beginning Gravity: 11.8 Plato
- Ending Gravity: 2.8 Plato
- Bitterness Units: 32
- Yeast: Bottom-fermenting Lager Yeast
- Bittering Hops: Perle & Saaz
- Finishing Hops: Saaz
- Malts: Two-row Pale, Dextrin & Munich

Bigfoot - Barleywine Style Ale

- Alcohol Content: 9.6% by volume
- Beginning Gravity: 23.0 Plato
- Ending Gravity: 6.0 Plato
- Bitterness Units: 90
- Yeast: Top-fermenting Ale Yeast
- Bittering Hops: Chinook
- Finishing Hops: Cascade & Centennnial
- Dry Hopping: Cascade, Centennial & Chinook
- Malts: Two-row Pale, English Caramel & Dextrin

Celebration Ale

- Alcohol Content: 6.8% by volume
- Beginning Gravity: 16.0 Plato
- Ending Gravity: 4.0 Plato
- Bitterness Units: 62
- Yeast: Top-fermenting Ale Yeast
- Bittering Hops: Chinook
- Finishing Hops: Cascade & Centennnial
- Dry Hopping: Cascade, Centennial & Chinook
- Malts: Two-row Pale, English Caramel & Dextrin

External links

- [http://www.sierranevada.com Sierra Nevada Brewing Company Website]
-
- [http://www.kgsncycling.com Kodak Gallery/Sierra Nevada Professional Cycling Team] Category:American breweries Category:Companies based in California Category:Microbreweries

Magic Hat Brewing Company

Magic Hat Brewing Company is a brewery located in Burlington, Vermont. They began production in 1994, and currently brew 9 different beers. They've recently stopped brewing Humble Patience, and had a funeral ceremony for it.

External links

- [http://www.magichat.net/ Company website] Category:American breweries

Craft beer

Craft beer generally refers to all-malt beer that is brewed with emphasis on quality rather than mass appeal. This term has become widely used in the United States to cover many imported beers, microbrews, and some high-quality domestic beers produced in larger quantities. Ideally craft beers are bottle- or cask-conditioned, and thus naturally carbonated by live yeast that continues to ferment in the container. They generally contain fewer adjuncts than mass-produced beers. In the United Kingdom, the term real ale is often used to refer to craft beer, especially cask-conditioned ales. In the U.S., true cask ales are rare, and craft beers on draft are mainly served from pressurized kegs. The demand for craft beer in the U.S. has increased steadily since the microbrew revolution of the 1980s. More people are being introduced to these quality brews and enthusiasts continue to delve into more exotic and flavorful styles. Among the most popular styles are American pale ales, English ESB (extra special or strong bitter), and hefeweizens. For those with stronger palates, India pale ales are a very popular style, especially among hopheads. Another increasingly popular style, London porter, was basically extinct until American brewers revived it.

Bavaria

Culture

Bavaria has a culture very distinct from the rest of Germany. Noteworthy differences (especially in rural areas, less significant in the major cities) can be found with respect to: Religion: Bavarians are typically very conservative Catholics, contrasting markedly with the more casual attitude to religion in much of the rest of Germany. The current pope, Benedict XVI, is from Bavaria Appearance: Bavarians give great attention to their personal appearance, while much of the rest of Germany dresses very casually. Also in business context, wearing traditional-style clothing is not unusual at least in the south of the Free State. Bavarian cities and towns, whether rich or poor, are among the best looked after locations in Germany. Food and Drink: As in the case of dress, Bavarians resemble the latin countries more closely than the rest of Germany with respect to the high priority they give to good food and drink. Bavarians also consume many items of food and drink which are unusual elsewhere in Germany. Politics: The Christian Social Union, which has ruled in Bavaria uninteruptedly since 1957, doesn't seek election in any other state of Germany. The CSU, arguably the most inward looking of the major German political parties, combines socially conservative positions with advocacy for extensive involvement of the state in the economy.

Geography

Bavaria shares international borders with Austria and the Czech Republic. Neighbouring states within Germany are Baden-Württemberg, Hesse, Thuringia and Saxony. Two major rivers flow through the state, the Danube (Donau) and the Main. The major cities in Bavaria are Munich (München), Nuremberg (Nürnberg), Augsburg, Regensburg, Würzburg, Ingolstadt, Fürth and Erlangen. See also: List of places in Bavaria.

Politics

Bavaria has a unicameral Landtag, or state parliament, elected by universal suffrage. Until December 1999, there was also a Senat, or Senate, whose members were chosen by social and economic groups in Bavaria, but following a referendum in 1998, this institution was abolished. The head of government is the Minister-president. Bavaria has long been a bastion of conservative politics in Germany, with the Christian Social Union having almost a stranglehold on power since its inception in 1946. Every Minister-president since 1957 has been a member of this party. In the 2003 elections the CSU won more than two thirds of the seats in Landtag. No party in post-war German history had achieved this before (not counting the rigged wins of the SED in East Germany).

Administrative Divisions

Regierungsbezirke (administrative regions)

Bavaria is divided into 7 administrative regions called Regierungsbezirke (singular Regierungsbezirk). Image:Bavarian_Admin_Districts.jpg # Oberfranken (Upper Franconia) # Mittelfranken (Middle Franconia) # Unterfranken (Lower Franconia) # Schwaben (Swabia) # Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate) # Oberbayern (Upper Bavaria) # Niederbayern (Lower Bavaria) These administrative regions consist of 71 administrative districts (called Landkreise, singular Landkreis) and 25 independent cities (kreisfreie Städte, singular kreisfreie Stadt).

Landkreise/kreisfreie Städte (administrative districs/independent cities)

Map of Bavaria Administrative districts: Independent cities:

Gemeinden (municipalities)

The 71 administrative districts are on the lowest level divided into 2031 municipalities (called Gemeinden, singular Gemeinde). Together with the 25 independent cities (which are in effect municipalities independent of Landkreis administrations), there are a total of 2056 municipalities in Bavaria. In 44 of the 71 administrative districts, there are a total of 215 unincorporated areas (as of January 1, 2005, called gemeindefreie Gebiete, singular gemeindefreies Gebiet), not belonging to any municipality, all uninhabited, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes (Chiemsee -without islands, Starnberger See -without island Roseninsel, Ammersee, which are the three largest lakes of Bavaria, and Waginger See).

Dialects

Waginger See]] Several German dialects are spoken in Bavaria. In the administrative regions to the north the Franconian dialect is prevalent, in Swabia the local dialect is Swabian, a thread of the Alemannic dialect family. In the Upper Palatinate people speak the Northern Bavarian dialect that can vary regionally. In Upper and Lower Bavaria (Middle) Austro-Bavarian is the predominant dialect.

History

Main article: History of Bavaria The first known mention of the Bavarian name was made by the Franks ca. 520. Saint Boniface completed the people's conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria resisted the Protestant Reformation, and remains strongly Roman Catholic. From about 550 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the duchy of Bavaria, ending with Tassilo III who was deposed by Charlemagne. For the next 400 years numerous families held the duchy, rarely for more than three generations. The last, and one of the most important, of these dukes was Henry the Lion of the house of Welf, founder of Munich. When Henry the Lion was deposed as duke of Saxony and Bavaria by his cousin, Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1180, Bavaria was awarded as fief to the Wittelsbach family, which ruled from 1180 to 1918. The first of several divisions of the duchy occurred in 1255 but in 1506 Bavaria was reunited and Munich became the sole capital. In 1623 the dukes acquired the electoral dignity. Bavaria became a kingdom in 1806, and in 1815 the Rhenish Palatinate was annexed to it. It managed to preserve its independence by playing off the rivalries of Prussia and Austria, but defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War led to its incorporation into the German Empire. In the early 20th century Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Henrik Ibsen, and other notable artists were drawn to Bavaria, notably to the Schwabing district of Munich, but the region was devastated by World War I. World War I] Socialist premier Kurt Eisner, who deposed King Ludwig III, was assassinated in 1919 leading to a violently suppressed communist revolt. Extremist activity on the right also increased, notably the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, and Munich and Nuremberg became Nazi strongholds under the Third Reich. As a manufacturing center, Munich was heavily bombed during World War II and occupied by U.S. troops. Since World War II, Bavaria has been rehabilitated into a prosperous industrial hub. A massive reconstruction effort restored much of Munich's historic core, and the city played host to the 1972 Summer Olympics. More recently, state minister-president Edmund Stoiber was the CDU/CSU candidate for chancellor in the 2002 federal election, and native son Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger was elected Pope Benedict XVI in 2005.

Miscellaneous

The many famous Bavarians include:
- Pope Benedict XVI -- as of April 2005 he is the current Pope of the Roman Catholic Church. His baptismal name is Joseph Ratzinger.
- Painters such as Hans Holbein the Elder, Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach and Franz Marc
- Musicians such as Richard Wagner, Richard Strauss and Theobald Boehm, the inventor of the modern flute.
- Modern musicians like Klaus Doldinger and Barbara Dennerlein
- Widely-read Bavarian writers like Bertolt Brecht, Lion Feuchtwanger
- Well-known scientists such as the Nobel prize winner Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and Werner Heisenberg,also Rudolf Moessbauer and Robert Huber
- Well-known inventors such as Levi Strauss and Rudolf Diesel.
- Neurologist Alois Alzheimer, who first described Alzheimer's Disease The motorcycle and automobile makers BMW (Bayerische Motoren-Werke, or Bavarian Motor Works) and Audi, Grundig (consumer electronics) and Siemens (electricity, telephones, informatics, medical instruments) have (or had) a Bavarian industrial base. A famous annual festival is called Oktoberfest or October Festival. It was first celebrated in 1810 as a public feast when the Bavarian crown prince Ludwig married Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen. The celebration originally was designed as a feast for all members of the Bavarian Nation, who should celebrate the country and the crown. It only turned to a pure matter of boozing in the 20th century and is nowadays attended rather by tourists than by Bavarians. Munich locals often despise it. It is celebrated during the two weeks leading up to the first Sunday in October. Bavaria has also given its name to a major Dutch brewery, Bavaria Brewery.

The meaning of the coat of arms

Modern coat of arms was designed by Eduard Ege, following heraldic traditions in 1946.
- The Golden Lion: The rampant lion Palatinate in its golden-and-red amour stands for the administrative region of Upper Palatinate.
- The "Franconian Rake": It represents the administrative regions of the Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia.
- The Blue Panther: At the bottom left of the third field there is a blue panther rampant, with gold talons, on a white (silver) ground. It rep-resents the regions of the Lower and Upper Bavaria.
- The Three Lions: In the fourth field three black lions with red talons stand on a golden ground one above the other, with heads askance. On the Bavarian coat of arms they symbolize Swabia.
- The White-And-Blue Heart-Shaped Shield: The heart-shaped shield of white and blue fusils askance was originally the coat of arms of the Counts of Bogen to be adopted in 1247 by the Wittelsbachs House. The white-and-blue fusils are indisputably the emblem of Bavaria and the heart-shaped shield today symbolizes Bavaria as a whole. Along with the People's Crown, it is officially used as the Minor Coat of Arms.
- The People's Crown: The four coat fields with the heart-shaped shield in the centre are crowned with a golden band with precious stones decorated with five ornamental leaves. This crown appeared for the first time in the coat of arms in 1923 to symbolize sovereignty of the people after the dropping out of the royal crown.

Bavarian "citizenship"

The fact that, different to the constitutions of all other German Länder, the Bavarian constitution provides for a Bavarian citizenship, is often mentioned as an indicator for Bavarian distinctiveness. Some Bavarians are keen to emphasize that - in accordance with the generous indication of the constitution - they regard everyone
- born in Bavaria,
- born to a Bavarian parent,
- adopted by a Bavarian as a child,
- married to a Bavarian, or
- naturalized in Bavaria, as a fellow-Bavarian; some of those falling under this untechnical definition express pride to being "Bavarian". However, state legislation regulating citizenship procedures has never been enacted, the consitution itself provides that all Germans enjoy the same rights as Bavarian citizens, and no office issues certificates concerning a "Bavarian" citizenship. Thus, the notion of citizenship rather bears a folkloristic, not really a political meaning.

Population and area

Admin. Region population(2003) area (km²) municipalities Lower Bavaria .... 1,162,972 9.6% 10,330 14.6% 258 12.5% Lower Franconia .. 1,329,399 11.0% 8,531 12.1% 308 15.0% Upper Franconia .. 1,113,790 9.2% 7,231 10.2% 214 10.4% Middle Franconia . 1,678,535 13.9% 7,246 10.3% 210 10.2% Upper Palatinate . 1,069,121 8.8% 9,690 13.7% 226 11.0% Swabia ........... 1,773,688 14.4% 9,992 14.2% 340 16.5% Upper Bavaria .... 3,996,043 33.1% 17,530 24.8% 500 24.3% ------------------ ---------- ------ ------ ------ ---- ------ BAVARIA .......... 12,086,548 100.0% 70,549 100.0% 2056 100.0%

External links

- [http://www.bayern.de/ Offical site] of the state of Bavaria
- [http://www.munich-to-vienna-via-salzburg.com/munich/bavaria.html Bavaria], Overview on Bavaria, its history and culture.
- [http://www.bayernviewer.de/ Bayern Viewer] aerial views and maps of Bavaria
- [http://www.bis.bayern.de/ Detailed map]
- [http://www.haus-bayern.com/ The Royal House of Bavaria]
- [http://www.vdiest.nl/Europa/Germany/bavaria.htm Bavaria information] Category:States of Germany Category:Bavaria als:Bayern ko:바이에른 주 ja:バイエルン州 simple:Bavaria

Weihenstephan

Weihenstephan is part of the city of Freising (48,500 inhabitants) north of Munich. Here the oldest brewery in the world is located. Weihenstephan is known
- as the site of one of the three campuses of the Munich University of Technology (TUM), namely the one for life sciences
- for its Benedictine abbey, founded 725, which established the allegedly oldest

Brewery

Beer industry definitions

History

The industrialization of the brewery

Major technological advances

The modern brewery

The Brewing Process

Mashing

Grain milling

Two-roller mills

Four-roller mills

Five- and Six-roller mills

Mashing-in

Enzymatic rests

β-glucanase rest

Protease rest

β-amylase rest

α-amylase rest

Decoction "rests"

Mash-out

Lautering

Lauter tun

Mash Filter

Boiling

Boiling Equipment

Energy Recovery

Whirlpool

Wort Cooling

Fermenting

Conditioning

Filtering

Sheet (Pad) Filters

Kieselguhr Filters

Packaging

Craft Brewing

Home Brewing

See also

References

Brewing

Brewing beer

Ale (top fermenting yeasts)

Lager (bottom fermenting yeasts)

Beers of Spontaneous Fermentation (wild yeasts)

Beers of mixed origin (blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers)

See also

Homebrewing

The Process

Brewing culture

Legality

See also

External links

Microbrewery

See also

External links

Billion

10^12

10^9

Synonyms

Trivia

See also

External links

Barrel (unit)

Hectoliter

Definitions and equivalents

SI prefixes applied to the litre

Name origin

Other common metric equivalencies

Conversions

Explanation

Symbol

History

See also

External links

Wholesaler

See also

Distributor

Direct ignition

Patents

See also

Brewpub

10^¹²

10^⁹